Chapter 1

In the northwest direction of Ji'an City, Jilin Province, about 2.5 kilometers away from the urban area, stands a small mountain peak with an altitude of 676 meters, named Wandu Mountain. On the mountain, there is a stone stele inscribed with the words: "National Key Cultural Relics Protection Unit, Wandu Mountain City, announced by the State Council of the People's Republic of China on February 23, 1982, and erected by the Ji'an County People's Government."

So, what kind of ancient city is the so-called "Wandu Mountain City," and who built it in what era? Nowadays, three remnants of ground structures can still be seen on Wandu Mountain: one is located at the foot of the eastern slope, 96.5 meters long from north to south, 80 meters wide from east to west, and three layers deep. According to experts, it was a palace. The second is on a high hill south of the palace, built with stone blocks, serving as a lookout tower. The third is 15 meters north of the lookout tower, where the remains of the soldiers' quarters can still be seen.

According to historical records, we can imagine that 1,800 years ago, in the fifth year of the Zhengshi era of the Cao Wei dynasty (244 AD), a large army marched to the foot of Wandu Mountain. The soldiers guarding the ancient city hurriedly ran out of their quarters and climbed the lookout tower. The sight of the enemy's flags covering the sky made them tremble with fear. However, at that moment, the ancient city had only a few thousand weary and defeated soldiers, completely unable to fight outside the city.

It seemed that Wandu Mountain City would soon be captured—the palace was in chaos, with both men and women busy gathering their belongings and preparing to flee. Among them, a man named Weigong could not help but sigh to the sky: "Is it the will of heaven to destroy our Goguryeo?"

A few days later, Weigong, the owner of this ancient city and the king of Goguryeo, secretly descended from Wandu Mountain and fled eastward in a wretched state. Wandu Mountain City, for the first time but not the last, fell...

1. Goguryeo is not a Peninsula Kingdom

Goguryeo, also written as Goguryeo or Koguryeo, with the character "Gou" pronounced as "Gou," similar to how the King of Yue in the Spring and Autumn period, Goujian, can also be written as "Goujian." It was an ancient kingdom in the northeastern region of China, established around the turn of the first millennium BC and fell in 668 AD, existing for about 700 years.

Now, both North Korea and South Korea claim that Goguryeo is an ancient kingdom of the peninsula and their ancestors, which is an irresponsible and absurd claim. For example, in 230 AD, Emperor Sun Quan of Eastern Wu sent generals Wei Wen and Zhuge Zhi to sail across the sea to find the immortal mountain, and they discovered "Yizhou," which later became Taiwan Island. Thereafter, people from the Min and Yue regions gradually migrated there, and by the Ming dynasty, troops were stationed in Taiwan. Therefore, we can say: "Taiwan has always been a part of China." However, we cannot reverse this to say: "China has always been a part of Taiwan." Similarly, we can say: "The northern part of the Korean Peninsula was once under the jurisdiction of the ancient Goguryeo Kingdom," but we cannot reverse this to say: "Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom of the Korean Peninsula."

From the perspective of ethnic composition, territorial boundaries, and historical evolution, Goguryeo was truly an ancient kingdom within the territory of China.

First, let's talk about ethnic composition. According to the "Records of the Three Kingdoms," Goguryeo was a "branch of the Fuyu people," with language and customs similar to those of the Fuyu. It also mentions that a "branch" of the Goguryeo people established the "Xiaoshui Mo" kingdom, suggesting a connection with the Huimo people. Fuyu and Huimo were general terms used in ancient China to describe many ethnic groups with similar customs in the northeastern region. Fuyu was in the north, active from Jilin to Heilongjiang, while Huimo was in the south, active on both sides of the Yalu River. Based on this, Goguryeo was likely a multi-ethnic state dominated by the Fuyu people, incorporating some Huimo groups.

At that time, the historically documented ethnic groups in the northern part of the peninsula were Chosun, Jinbeon, and Huimo, while the southern part was known as the Three Han (Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan)—none of which were related to the main ethnic group of Goguryeo, the Fuyu.

Now, let's talk about territorial boundaries. Indeed, during its peak, Goguryeo's territory extended to the Han River Basin, but its early and mid-period political center was always in northeastern China. Goguryeo's first capital was "Guonei City," which is today's Ji'an City, Jilin Province, and its second capital was Wandu City on Wandu Mountain near Ji'an, originally named Weina Rock City.

In terms of historical evolution—let's first briefly outline the ethnic and state conditions in northeastern China and the Korean Peninsula before the 3rd century, that is, before Wandu City was captured.

2. From Founding to the First Crisis

The Liaoxi region produced the brilliant Hongshan Culture, one of the main sources of Chinese civilization. A thousand years after the Hongshan Culture, the famous Longshan Culture emerged in Shandong. We can imagine that the ancient residents of these two regions crossed the narrow Bohai Bay by boat, interacting and influencing each other, and spreading their culture in all directions, including the Korean Peninsula.

The oldest kingdom on the peninsula was Chosun, said to have been established by Prince Jizi when the Shang dynasty fell. This claim is still debated in academic circles, with the general view that Jizi first fled to Liaoxi to establish a kingdom, then faced continuous attacks and suppression from the Yan state, a vassal of the Zhou dynasty, and eventually migrated to the northern part of the peninsula, the Dae Dong River Basin. In the early Western Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang enfeoffed his fellow townsman Lu Wan in Yan, but later, Lu Wan was attacked by the Han army for colluding with the Xiongnu. His general, Wei Man, led his troops to Korea, soon overthrew Chosun, and established the Wei Kingdom, which submitted to the Han dynasty.

During the Qin dynasty and the early Western Han dynasty, the northeastern border only extended to the Liaodong Peninsula, with many ethnic groups collectively known as Fuyu (in the west) and Sushen (in the east) distributed in the vast northeastern region. Additionally, there were the Woji people in the northeastern part of the Korean Peninsula. The "Book of Han" records that two small states, Jinbeon and Jin, once existed in the northern part of the peninsula, both of which submitted to the Han and sought aid due to harassment by the Wei Kingdom. Thus, during Emperor Wu of Han's reign, he repeatedly sent troops to attack Korea and captured the capital of Korea, Xian City (near today's Pyongyang), in the third year of the Yuanfeng era (108 BC). He then established the commanderies of Jinbeon, Linjun, Lelang, and Xuantu (later merged into Lelang and Xuantu), which basically included today's southern Jilin Province and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.

A hundred years later, Goguryeo was founded. Wang Mang ordered Goguryeo to assist in attacking the Xiongnu, but after being refused, he sent troops to attack and won a great victory, thus renaming Goguryeo as Xiaoguryeo (Wang Mang enjoyed renaming things). It is said that at that time, Goguryeo was a vassal state in the new dynasty's rank system. It was not until the Eastern Han dynasty was established that they again submitted, and Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu, pleased, promoted it to a kingdom.

As the Han dynasty gradually weakened, Goguryeo began to expand outward. During the reigns of Emperor Shangdi and Emperor Andi, a king of Goguryeo named Gong annexed about 70% of the land of the Lelang and Xuantu commanderies and further invaded the Liaodong commandery. When Dong Zhuo appointed Gongsun Du as the governor of Liaodong, Gongsun Du, a local warlord, had abilities and ambitions far beyond those of a regular Han administrative official in a remote area, and soon gained the upper hand in the struggle with Goguryeo.

In the second year of the Jian'an era of Emperor Xian of Han (197 AD), Gong's two grandsons, Baji and Iyimou, fought for the throne. Baji, failing, fled to Liaodong and sought refuge with Gongsun Du's son, Gongsun Kang. Gongsun Kang then sent troops eastward, captured Guonei City, and looted it extensively—Goguryeo finally faced its first major crisis after 200 years of existence...

3. The Achievements of Wang Qian

Guonei City was built on flat ground, while Wandu City was built on a hill, with the two cities less than 3 kilometers apart, supporting each other like a pincer, a very unique form of capital in the history of world city-building. We do not know what happened to Wandu City when Gongsun Kang's army captured Guonei City, but from the fact that Goguryeo later made Wandu its capital, it is likely that Wandu City, relying on its rugged terrain, did not fall, or if it did, it was not as severely damaged as Guonei City.

Indeed, Gongsun Kang's army invaded Goguryeo, captured Guonei City, but did not take the opportunity to completely annex this ancient kingdom. Soon after, the powerful Yuan clan in Hebei was overthrown, and the brothers Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang fled to Liaodong, seeking aid from Gongsun Kang, followed by Cao Cao's army. Perhaps to counter the powerful pressure from the southwest, Gongsun Kang was forced to withdraw from Goguryeo. The deposed prince Baji brought 30,000 Goguryeo people to Liaodong.

The standoff and conflict between the two sides seemed to return to the original state, with the Gongsun clan still controlling Liaodong and Goguryeo dominating both sides of the Yalu River, both submitting to the Han dynasty and then the Cao Wei dynasty. After Gongsun Kang's death, his brother Gongsun Gong succeeded him, and later his son Gongsun Yuan usurped power. When Iyimou died, he passed the throne to his son Weigong.

We remember that Goguryeo once had a king named Gong, who was said to have opened his eyes immediately after birth, considered an ominous sign. The new king, like his ancestor, was also born with his eyes open, and in the Goguryeo language, this similar meaning is "Wei," so he was called Weigong, meaning "like Gong." This Weigong was skilled in archery and horsemanship, had extraordinary martial prowess, and had very ambitious goals.

In the second year of the Jingchu era of Emperor Ming of Wei (238 AD), Sima Yi was ordered to campaign against Liaodong and overthrew the Gongsun clan. It is said that Weigong also sent a force of several thousand troops to assist in attacking their long-standing enemy. After the war, Goguryeo's influence continued to spread westward, beginning to encroach on the territory of Cao Wei. Thus, in 244 AD, Wang Qian, the governor of Youzhou and the general of Duliang, personally led 10,000 infantry and cavalry through the Xuantu commandery to campaign against Goguryeo.

Weigong personally led 20,000 troops to meet them, and the two sides engaged in a fierce battle by the Boiliu River. This so-called Boiliu River is generally believed to be the Fulian River, the largest tributary of the Hun River, mainly located in today's Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province, where the first king of Goguryeo, Jumong, is said to have started his rise. The result of the battle was a major defeat for the Goguryeo army, and Wang Qian pursued the victory, directly attacking Wandu City—this is the scene described at the beginning of this article.

The "Records of the Three Kingdoms" records that Goguryeo once had a virtuous minister named Dalei, who held the title of Pei, who repeatedly advised Weigong not to wage war and not to oppose the Central Plains dynasty, but Weigong would not listen. Disappointed to the extreme, Dalei starved himself to death and sighed, "I see this magnificent capital will soon be overgrown with wild grass." When the Wei army captured Wandu City, Weigong fled eastward with his family, and Wang Qian entered the city. Hearing this, he strictly ordered his soldiers not to damage Dalei's tomb or cut down the trees on it, and released Dalei's wife and children when they were captured.

Perhaps because this campaign was relatively hasty, Wang Qian did not pursue Weigong and soon withdrew. Weigong may have returned to Wandu City for a time, but at the end of the following year, the Wei army attacked again, and he fled once more. This time, Wang Qian completely destroyed Wandu City and erected a stone stele to record his achievements, while also sending the governor of Xuantu, Wang Ji, to pursue Weigong. It is said that Wang Ji pursued for over a thousand miles, through Woji, all the way to the southern border of Sushen (likely the northeastern border of today's Korea, near the sea).

Weigong was not captured by the Wei army. It is said that he fled to Maigou, near today's Hui'an City, Hamgyong Province, North Korea, and lived for more than two years before finally dying. This time, the Central Plains dynasty completely annexed the southern territory of Goguryeo, subjugated the Woji tribes, and expanded its territory across the Yalu River to the Han River Basin, expanding the jurisdiction of the Lelang commandery and adding the Daifang commandery.

4. From Prosperity to Extinction

The loss of half the territory, the destruction of the capital, and the death of the king in a foreign land did not cause the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo to collapse. Soon, Wang Qian was transferred to the southern front to serve as the governor of Yuzhou and was beheaded by Sima Shi in the Huainan rebellion of 255 AD. Thus, Goguryeo made a comeback, and the northeastern commanderies, no longer guarded by a strong general, were attacked again. After the Cao Wei dynasty, the short-lived Western Jin dynasty saw the Goguryeo people take advantage of the chaos of the Five Barbarians to return to Wandu City—this was probably around the beginning of the 4th century, less than 70 years after Wandu City was destroyed by Wang Qian.

In 313 AD, the same year that the Xiongnu King Liu Cong killed Emperor Huai of Jin, Sima Chi, and the last emperor of the Western Jin, Emperor Min, ascended the throne in Chang'an, Goguryeo's King Meichuan (also known as Haorang or Haorang) annexed the last commandery of the Central Plains dynasty on the Korean Peninsula, the Lelang commandery. The Central Plains dynasty's influence in the northeast was forced to retreat to the Liaodong region.

King Meichuan's name was Yifu or Yifuli, and he died in 331 AD. Unexpectedly, just eleven years later, the army of the Former Yan, led by King Murong Huang, attacked Wandu City, excavated the tomb of this king, and took away his body. In 367 AD, three years before the Former Yan was overthrown by the Former Qin, the Yan army invaded Goguryeo again and captured Wandu City.

After the fall of the Former Yan, the more fierce and brutal Northern Wei army soon arrived. In 427 AD, to avoid the threat of the Northern Wei and consolidate its power on the peninsula, Goguryeo's King Changsu, Gao Lian, was forced to leave the storm-tossed Wandu City, which had stood for over 200 years, and moved the capital south to near today's Pyongyang, North Korea. From then on, the political center of Goguryeo gradually shifted south, moving from northeastern China to the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.

Around this time, the Three Han tribes in the southern part of the peninsula began to enter the state stage, establishing the kingdoms or city-state alliances of Baekje, Silla, and Gaya. Goguryeo, under pressure from the Mohe, Khitan, and Northern Wei in the north, focused on expanding southward, quickly dividing the peninsula with Baekje and Silla, forming the "Three Kingdoms Era" in Korean history.

Unfortunately, if Goguryeo had maintained a respectful attitude toward the Central Plains dynasty and focused on southern expansion, it might have unified the Korean Peninsula with its strength at the time. However, the political mistakes of several generations of kings led to multiple invasions by Emperor Yang of Sui and Emperor Taizong of Tang. The Goguryeo people resisted tenaciously and managed to win these battles, but the victories made the rulers even more arrogant. Finally, in the mid-7th century, the Tang dynasty, allied with Silla, attacked Goguryeo and Baekje. In the fifth year of the Xianqing era of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (660 AD), Baekje fell, and in the third year of the Qianfeng era (667 AD), Goguryeo fell.

However, the Tang dynasty failed to firmly control the Korean Peninsula, and Silla soon unified the area south of the Dae Dong River. In the 10th century, Silla split, entering the "Later Three Kingdoms Era," and was eventually unified by the general Wang Geon of the Taebong kingdom, who claimed to be the legitimate successor of Goguryeo and named his state Goryeo—though it had no direct connection to the long-defunct Goguryeo.

However, the Chinese were deceived, and many ancient historians believed that Goguryeo and Goryeo were indeed a continuous lineage, often using "Goryeo" to refer to Goguryeo, causing confusion and providing evidence for the peninsula countries to claim Goguryeo as their ancestor and assert that Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom of Korea. In the early days of the People's Republic of China, the academic community was also confused, but by the 1980s, the situation gradually improved.

On February 23, 1982, the State Council approved the listing of the Wandu Mountain City site in Ji'an City as a national key cultural relics protection unit, the second batch. On June 25, 2002, the Guonei City site and the Wandu Mountain City site were merged and listed as the fifth batch of national key cultural relics protection units. On July 1, 2004, both cities were included in the World Heritage List.

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