Chapter 2

The Tang Dynasty's official system was largely inherited from the Sui Dynasty. The "New Book of Tang: Officials and Institutions" states: "The Tang's official system, although the names and ranks of officials were adjusted over time, largely followed the Sui system."

The feudal state system, with the emperor at its head, was established relatively comprehensively during the Wude period of Emperor Gaozu. The emperor held the highest power in the state, having the authority to decide the life and death of all subjects. Laws and edicts were issued in the emperor's name, and the emperor had the right to amend laws and edicts and was not bound by them. Below the emperor, there were the Three Provinces (Zhongshu, Menxia, and Shangshu), the Six Ministries, the Nine Temples, and the Five Supervisors, forming a system of officials. In the central government, the legislative, deliberative, and administrative bodies were divided but cooperative. The responsibilities of the administrative and executive bodies were clearly defined, and the supervisory institutions were well-established. Additionally, there was a relatively complete system of ranks and titles. The "New Book of Tang: Officials and Institutions" says:

"To distinguish between the noble and the humble, to reward merit and ability, there were ranks, titles, honors, and grades, which were regularly evaluated and adjusted to promote or demote officials, thereby employing talents and managing various affairs... During the prosperous period of the Tang Dynasty, the system was like this."

As social contradictions developed and political situations changed, the Tang Dynasty's official system also underwent changes. "Special envoys" gradually encroached on the powers of the original officials, and new special envoys disrupted the original bureaucratic system. They occupied most of the central and local powers. The situation at the time, as described by Li Zhao in the "Supplement to the History of the Tang Dynasty," was "important as envoys, but light as officials." This phenomenon also had a certain impact on the Song Dynasty's official system. The central official system of the Tang Dynasty can be roughly divided into the following systems:

1. The Chancellor and the Political Affairs Hall

In the early Tang Dynasty, the heads of the Zhongshu Province (Chancellor of the Zhongshu), the Menxia Province (Attendant-in-Ordinary), and the Shangshu Province (Chancellor of the Shangshu) deliberated on state affairs and were all chancellors. The chancellor was an official who assisted the emperor in managing the country. The "New Book of Tang: Officials and Institutions" states: "Assisting the Son of Heaven in overseeing all officials and managing all affairs, their responsibilities were heavy." Later, because Emperor Taizong had once served as Chancellor of the Shangshu before his ascension, his ministers avoided taking this position, and the position of Vice-Chancellor of the Shangshu was used instead, along with the Attendant-in-Ordinary and the Chancellor of the Zhongshu, who were collectively known as chancellors. According to the "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government: General Preface on Chancellors," since the Sui Dynasty, "officials from other positions who participated in state affairs and managed the government were also considered auxiliary ministers." In the Tang Dynasty, because the position of chancellor was highly esteemed, the emperor was reluctant to grant it easily, so officials from other positions often held the position of chancellor and used the titles of other positions. For example, during Emperor Taizong's reign, Du Yan, as Minister of Personnel, participated in state affairs, and Wei Zheng, as Secretary of the Secretariat, participated in state affairs. Later, they were called "advisors on gains and losses" or "vice-chancellors," among other titles, all of which were chancellor positions. The "Old Book of Tang: Biography of Li Jing" records that in the eighth year of the Zhenguan era (634 AD), Chancellor of the Zhongshu (later recorded as Vice-Chancellor of the Shangshu) Li Jing, due to illness, submitted a petition to retire, with very sincere words. Emperor Taizong was moved and said: "I have observed that throughout history, those who have achieved wealth and status and can be content are few. Even if they lack talent and are ill, they still insist on holding their positions. You can see the big picture, and your spirit is truly commendable." Therefore, in addition to issuing a favorable edict allowing him to rest at home, Emperor Taizong also ordered him to attend the Political Affairs Hall every two or three days when his illness improved. In the seventeenth year of the Zhenguan era (643 AD), Emperor Taizong appointed Li Ji as the Chief Tutor of the Crown Prince (the highest official of the Eastern Palace) and specially added the title "Equal to the Three Provinces" to allow him to participate in the chancellor's duties. From then on, the titles "Equal to the Three Provinces" and "Equal to the Chancellor" were used, and even officials of the highest rank could not exercise the chancellor's powers without these titles, except for the Three Dukes, the Three Teachers, and the Chancellor of the Zhongshu. In the first year of Yongchun (682 AD), Huangmen Attendant Shang Shuju and Bingbu Attendant Cen Changqian were appointed as "Equal to the Three Provinces," and since then, "Equal to the Chancellor" also became a chancellor's title. After the Kaiyuan era, the Vice-Chancellor of the Shangshu was no longer given the title "Equal to the Chancellor," and thus could not participate in the chancellor's deliberations and was excluded from the chancellor's ranks.

After the Anshi Rebellion, the chancellor's titles changed again. In the twelfth year of the Dali era (777 AD), the Chancellor of the Zhongshu and the Attendant-in-Ordinary were promoted to the second rank, so the title "Equal to the Three Provinces" was abolished. At the same time, the Chancellor of the Zhongshu and the Attendant-in-Ordinary were mostly concurrently held by military governors and were rarely appointed as chancellors alone. Therefore, the chancellor's title in the later Tang Dynasty was basically "Equal to the Chancellor."

In the early Tang Dynasty, the heads of the Three Provinces deliberated in the Menxia Province. This deliberation place was called the Political Affairs Hall. The "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government: Officials and Institutions" states: "The Zhongshu Province issued edicts, the Menxia Province reviewed and rejected them, and there were often disputes and unresolved issues, so the two provinces first deliberated in the Political Affairs Hall before reporting to the emperor." Later, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Pei Yan, who moved from Attendant-in-Ordinary to Chancellor of the Zhongshu, relocated the Political Affairs Hall to the Zhongshu Province. In the eleventh year of the Kaiyuan era (723 AD), when Zhang Shuo was Chancellor of the Zhongshu, he renamed the Political Affairs Hall to "Zhongshu Menxia" and established five departments—Personnel, State Affairs, Military, Household, and Criminal and Ritual—behind it to manage various affairs. From then on, the Political Affairs Hall evolved from a deliberation place to a chancellor's office. The reason for this change was that before Emperor Xuanzong, the chancellors were concurrently heads of the Three Provinces (as they still had their regular duties in their respective provinces), and they deliberated in the morning at the Political Affairs Hall and returned to their respective provinces in the afternoon, so there was no need for a separate chancellor's office. After the Kaiyuan era, the number of chancellors decreased, and their positions became more prestigious, mostly being full-time (although Yang Guozhong held over forty positions, his main role was as chancellor), so it became necessary to establish a fixed chancellor's office and five departments to handle daily administrative affairs.

The Political Affairs Hall meetings were the decision-making bodies assisting the emperor in ruling the country. Major military and state affairs were deliberated in the Political Affairs Hall and then submitted to the emperor for final approval; confidential matters and the appointments and dismissals of officials of the fifth rank and above were discussed only in the Political Affairs Hall, and other officials were not allowed to participate. Among the chancellors deliberating in the Political Affairs Hall (or Zhongshu Menxia), one was the chief chancellor, known as the "Chief of the Political Affairs Hall." During Emperor Xuanzong's reign, Li Linfu and Yang Guozhong were able to monopolize power, one important reason being their long-term occupation of the "Chief of the Political Affairs Hall" position. After the Anshi Rebellion, Emperor Suzong, considering the concentration of power and the resulting personal dictatorship, ordered the chancellors to take turns holding the "Chief of the Political Affairs Hall" position, changing every ten days. This system of chancellors taking turns every ten days was changed to daily rotation in the tenth year of the Zhenyuan era (794 AD) during Emperor Dezong's reign, with the intention of preventing the chancellor's monopoly. However, this system was not continued after Emperor Dezong, and during the reigns of Emperor Muzong and Emperor Jingzong, Li Fengji, and during Emperor Wuzong's reign, Li Deyu, were all sole rulers. The size of the chancellor's power depended on the emperor's (and the eunuchs in the late Tang Dynasty) attitude.

2. The Three Provinces and Six Ministries

The Tang Dynasty followed the Sui Dynasty's system, where the Zhongshu Province, the Menxia Province, and the Shangshu Province were the highest state administrative bodies, responsible for decision-making, deliberation, and execution of state affairs, respectively. The original departments of the Shangshu Province were officially established as the six ministries: Personnel, Household, Rites, Military, Criminal, and Works. Each ministry had departments, with the head of each ministry called a Shangshu (Minister) and the deputy head called a Shilang (Vice-Minister). The heads and deputy heads of each department were called Langzhong (Director) and Yuanwailang (Deputy Director).

The establishment of the Three Provinces and Six Ministries system in the Sui and Tang Dynasties was the result of the continuous changes in the central official system of the feudal state since the Qin and Han Dynasties. Its organization was relatively complete, and its division of labor was relatively clear, marking the maturity of the feudal society. This system continued until the Qing Dynasty with little change. However, one difference from the Ming and Qing Dynasties was that the Shangshu Province in the Tang Dynasty had a general office called the "Dusheng," where the Left and Right Chancellors and the Left and Right Langzhong and Yuanwailang of the Dusheng managed the three left ministries (Personnel, Household, and Rites) and the three right ministries (Military, Criminal, and Works). The Left and Right Chancellors were in charge of administrative supervision, while the Left and Right Langzhong had a general management function.

Among the Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province, and Shangshu Province, the Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province had the closest relationship and were collectively known as the "Two Provinces" or "Beisheng" (the Shangshu Province was called "Nansheng"). The heads of the Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province were the Chancellor of the Zhongshu and the Attendant-in-Ordinary, both of whom were third-rank officials (promoted to second-rank during the reign of Emperor Daizong). The Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province jointly handled major military and state affairs, with the Zhongshu Province responsible for decision-making and the Menxia Province responsible for review and deliberation. All major military and state affairs were first deliberated by the Zhongshu Province and then drafted into edicts, which were submitted to the Menxia Province for review and resubmission. The Menxia Province could return the edicts for revision if it had objections. Important memorials from central departments, temples, and supervisory bodies, as well as local departments, had to be submitted to the Shangshu Province and then reviewed by the Menxia Province. After approval, they were submitted to the Zhongshu Province for the emperor's review or drafting of a response. The Menxia Province could also return the response for revision if it deemed it inappropriate. Emperor Taizong highly valued the role of the Zhongshu and Menxia Provinces in the central administrative institutions and often referred to them as the "key departments." According to the "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government" (Volume 192), he said to his ministers in the first year of the Zhenguan era (627 AD):

"If there are errors in the edicts issued by the Zhongshu Province, the Menxia Province should naturally correct them. People have different views, and if there are debates and discussions, the goal is to find the most appropriate solution. Giving up one's own opinion to follow others is also not a problem. Recently, some people have protected their own shortcomings, leading to resentment and conflicts, or avoided personal grievances and did not correct errors, pleasing one person but causing great harm to the people. This is the governance of a fallen state."

It is evident that Emperor Taizong paid great attention to collective wisdom and prevented personal dictatorship, which could cause "great harm to the people." The assistance of the Zhongshu and Menxia Provinces in the emperor's decision-making was an effective measure to prevent personal dictatorship.

The Zhongshu Province had two Chancellors of the Zhongshu, both of whom were second-rank officials (third-rank before Emperor Daizong). In the first year of the Longshuo era (661 AD), the Zhongshu Province was renamed the Western Bureau, and the Chancellor of the Zhongshu was called the Right Chancellor. In the first year of the Guangzhu era (684 AD), the Zhongshu Province was renamed the Phoenix Pavilion, and the Chancellor of the Zhongshu was called the Inner Historian. In the first year of the Kaiyuan era (713 AD), the Zhongshu Province was renamed the Purple Micro Pavilion, and the Chancellor of the Zhongshu was called the Purple Micro Chancellor. Later, it reverted to its original name. The Chancellor of the Zhongshu was the head of the province, and the "New Book of Tang: Officials and Institutions" states: "The Chancellor of the Zhongshu... assists the Son of Heaven in managing major state affairs and oversees the affairs of the province." There were also two Vice-Chancellors of the Zhongshu, both of whom were third-rank officials, assisting in the deliberation of major state affairs and the appointment of officials. If foreign envoys came to court, they would receive their memorials and submit them. There were also six Secretaries of the Zhongshu, all of whom were fifth-rank officials, responsible for serving and submitting memorials, participating in the drafting of edicts and imperial commands, and managing the imperial seals and titles. Because they handled important state affairs, four prohibitions were specifically established: no leakage, no delay, no violation, and no forgetfulness. They could express their preliminary opinions on major state affairs and memorials discussed within the province and sign their names, known as "Five-Flower Judgments." After the opinions were gathered by the Chancellor of the Zhongshu and the Vice-Chancellor of the Zhongshu, they were handed over to the Secretaries of the Zhongshu, who then drafted the edicts according to the emperor's intentions. The Secretary of the Zhongshu responsible for drafting the edicts was called the "Edict Drafter," and the other Secretaries of the Zhongshu also signed their names on the edicts. The most senior Secretary of the Zhongshu, known as the "Senior Secretary," was responsible for handling the province's miscellaneous affairs. The six Secretaries of the Zhongshu were divided among the six departments of the Shangshu Province and assisted the chancellors in handling cases. The Political Affairs Hall, where the chancellors deliberated, had a door leading to the office of the Secretaries of the Zhongshu, and the chancellors often passed through this door to consult with the Secretaries of the Zhongshu. According to the "Old Book of Tang: Biography of Chang Gun," during the reign of Emperor Daizong, Chang Gun, as chancellor, blocked this door "to show his dignity and avoid interaction." During the reign of Emperor Suzong, other officials were often appointed as Secretaries of the Zhongshu, and the "New Book of Tang: Officials and Institutions" states that at the time, "