Chapter 2

The story of Xu Zhong avenging his mother is recorded in historical books: During the Eastern Han Dynasty, a man from Anqiu named Wuqiu Chang "was walking in the market with his mother when they encountered a drunk man who insulted his mother." Wuqiu Chang then killed the man to avenge his mother and fled to Jiaodong. However, the subsequent story differs from the book: The Anqiu county officials tracked him down to Jiaodong and caught Wuqiu Chang. Wu You, who was then the Marquis of Jiaodong, said to him, "Your mother was insulted, which is a disgrace to human feelings, but a truly filial son would consider the difficulties before acting and would not involve his family. Now you have acted out of anger and killed someone in broad daylight. If we pardon you, it would be unjust; if we punish you, it would be merciless. What should we do?" Wuqiu Chang bound himself with chains and said, "The state has laws, and I have broken them. Even if you show me mercy, there is no place for your kindness." Wu You asked Wuqiu Chang, "Do you have a wife and children?" Wuqiu Chang replied, "I have a wife but no children." Wu You then had the Anqiu officials bring Wuqiu Chang's wife to Jiaodong. When she arrived, he removed her shackles and allowed her to stay with Wuqiu Chang in the prison, where she became pregnant. When the time came for the execution in winter, Wuqiu Chang wept and said to his mother, "I have failed you and should die, but how can I repay Mr. Wu?" He then bit off his finger and swallowed it, saying, "If my wife gives birth to a son, name him 'Wusheng,' to show that I made a vow by swallowing my finger and entrust my son to repay Mr. Wu." He then hanged himself. This story is recorded in the "Book of the Later Han: Biography of Wu You."

The reason why Wu You acted this way is related to the prevailing customs of the time: "According to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, a son who does not avenge his father is not a true son."

The Spring and Autumn Annals contains many stories of revenge. Dong Zhongshu said, "According to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, a minister who does not punish a traitor is not a true minister, and a son who does not avenge his father is not a true son." The most famous example is Su Buwei, whose target was the state's finance minister. Because this person was heavily guarded, it was difficult to take action, so Su Buwei dug up the grave of the minister's father and cut off his head, which earned him the praise of Guo Linzong: "His strength was that of an ordinary man, but his achievement was as great as a thousand chariots."

Another example is Yang Qiu, whose mother was insulted. "Yang Qiu, whose courtesy name was Fangzheng, was from Yuyang in Quanzhou. His family was a prominent clan. Yang Qiu was skilled in swordsmanship and archery. He was strict and a follower of the Legalist school. A county official insulted his mother, so Yang Qiu gathered dozens of young men, killed the official, and destroyed his family, thus gaining fame." Yang Qiu was a famous minister during the reign of Emperor Ling, serving as the Inspector of the Capital and executing eunuchs.

Due to this prevailing custom, there was widespread sympathy and support for avengers in society. If officials reduced the sentences of avengers or let them go, they would receive praise from the people.

For example, Zhi Yun avenged his friend Dong Zizhang. Dong Zizhang's father was killed by a fellow villager. Later, Dong Zizhang fell ill and was near death. Zhi Yun visited him, and Dong Zizhang sobbed and could not speak. Zhi Yun said to him, "I know you are not sad about dying, but because your father's enemy has not been avenged. I could not help you while you were alive, but now that you are about to die, I will avenge you." He then led a group of guests to kill Dong Zizhang's enemy and brought the head to see Dong Zizhang, who died upon seeing it. Zhi Yun, who was a county official, went to the county office to surrender. The county magistrate hesitated, but Zhi Yun said, "Avenging a friend is a personal matter. Upholding the law without favoritism is your duty. To let me live at the expense of your duty is not the way of a loyal official." He then left for the prison. The county magistrate, barefoot, chased after Zhi Yun but did not catch him, so he also went to the prison, drew his sword across his neck, and threatened Zhi Yun, saying, "If you do not come out with me, I will kill myself." Zhi Yun then came out and left due to illness.

Zhi Yun was a famous minister in the early Eastern Han Dynasty. He once blocked Emperor Guangwu from entering the city gate because he returned late from hunting, and he taught the crown prince.

During the reigns of Emperor Guangwu and Emperor Ming, the famous minister Zhongli Yi also showed mercy to avengers. When he was the county magistrate of Xiqiu, a local named Fang Guang avenged his father and was imprisoned. His mother fell ill and died, and Fang Guang cried and refused to eat. Zhongli Yi felt sorry for him and allowed him to return home to bury his mother. The chief and clerks argued, but Zhongli Yi said, "I will take the blame, but I will not let the law fall on him." He then sent him home. Fang Guang buried his mother and returned to prison. Zhongli Yi secretly reported the situation, and Fang Guang was eventually spared the death penalty.

At the end of the Han Dynasty, the famous minister Hu Guang also pardoned avengers. A man named Wang Ziyu from Runan killed the uncle of Chen Gongsi, who then killed Wang Ziyu to avenge his uncle and returned to the government office to face the death penalty. The governor, Hu Guang, believed that Chen Gongsi was motivated by the memory of his uncle, showing bravery and righteousness, and that he had killed his enemy and turned himself in, so he pardoned him.

During the reign of Emperor Ling, a woman named Zhao E from Jiuquan avenged her father. In the second year of Guanghe, she killed her enemy in front of the county hall and then surrendered. The entire city watched, and the crowd was so large that it formed a wall. Everyone felt both sorrow and admiration, and the county magistrate "forcibly took her home" and released her without punishment. Not only that, but the Inspector of Liangzhou and the Governor of Jiuquan also jointly petitioned the court, praising her righteousness, and erected a stone monument to honor her family.

Another example is Zhang Xin, who was the county magistrate of Pinggao. A man came forward to avenge his father and was summoned by Zhang Xin. Zhang Xin said, "I want to hear his story." After the man entered, Zhang Xin removed his shackles, provided him with food and drink, and then let him go, after which Zhang Xin resigned and went into hiding. Later, he was pardoned and "the people of the region admired his high moral standards."

During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling, the famous scholar Shentu Pan, who was poor in his youth and worked as a lacquer worker, had a case in his county where a woman named Gou Yuyu avenged her father by killing her husband's family. The county magistrate, Liang Pei, planned to execute her. Shentu Pan, who was then fifteen, advised, "Yuyu's righteousness is enough to inspire the shameless and the cowardly. If she had not encountered a wise ruler, she would still deserve a monument. How much more so now that she has encountered a wise ruler like you?" Liang Pei agreed and did not execute Gou Yuyu, sparing her life. "The people of the region praised her."

Not only officials but also the emperor pardoned avengers. Ning Shu, whose courtesy name was Maotai, was from Guanghan. He and his friend Zhang Chang studied together at the Imperial Academy. Zhang Chang was killed by a powerful man named Lü Tiao, so Ning Shu killed Lü Tiao and turned himself in to the prison in Henan. Emperor Shun found his actions just and pardoned him.

The youngest avenger was probably a thirteen-year-old boy named Zuo Qiaoyun from Mianzhu, who killed a county official who had injured his adoptive father's leg with a sharp knife. Another young avenger was Xia Hou Dun, who at fourteen killed a man who had insulted his teacher, "and thus became known for his fierce spirit."

The "Book of the Later Han: Biography of Recluses" records a man named Zhou Party, who was once insulted by a local official. He went to the capital to study and read the Spring and Autumn Annals, where he learned about the principle of revenge, "the nine generations of revenge," and decided to return home to avenge the insult. He set a date for a duel, but when they fought, he was overpowered and injured. The local official, moved by his "righteousness," took him home in a cart and cared for him. After Zhou Party recovered, he "disciplined himself and cultivated his character, and the people of the region praised his high moral standards." This is the "nine generations of revenge, the principle of the Spring and Autumn Annals."

In the story, Xu Zhong did not kill his enemy when he was sick, which is derived from a historical account: "Zhao Xi, whose courtesy name was Boyang, was from Nanyang in Wan. He had a high moral character from a young age. His cousin was killed by someone, and since he had no children, Zhao Xi, at the age of fifteen, often thought about avenging him. He then armed himself and gathered a group of people, and later went to avenge his cousin. However, the enemy was sick, and no one could resist him. Zhao Xi thought that killing someone while they were sick was not the act of a benevolent person, so he released them and left. He told the enemy, 'If you recover, stay away from me.' Later, when the enemy recovered, they all bound themselves and went to Zhao Xi, but Zhao Xi did not meet them, and eventually killed them." Zhao Xi was a famous minister in the Eastern Han Dynasty, later serving as the Governor of Pingyuan, the Grand Commandant, and being enfeoffed as the Marquis of Jie. During the reign of Emperor Zhang, he also served as the Grand Tutor. "In the fifth year of Jianchu, Zhao Xi fell ill, and the emperor personally visited him. When he died, the emperor went to mourn him. He was eighty-four years old and was posthumously honored as the Righteous Marquis."

To conclude, the regions with the strongest revenge customs during the Han Dynasty were:

During the Western Han Dynasty, the customs were strongest in Guanzhong, followed by Yingchuan, Nanyang, Henei, and Luoyang, and then in Taiyuan and Shangdang.

Yingchuan and the surrounding areas were the former territories of Han and Wei during the Warring States period, where the custom of revenge was already prevalent. Mencius even discussed it. During the Western Han Dynasty, many avengers were from this region, such as Guo Jie, Han Ru, Ju Meng, and Xue Kuang. The people of the time consistently felt that the region placed a high value on revenge. During the mid-Western Han Dynasty, Zou Yang said, "Han and Wei had extraordinary customs," referring to the custom of revenge. During the transition between the Han and Xin dynasties, Kouxun also told Liu Xiu, "Yingchuan is fierce and light," meaning that the custom of revenge was strong, and suggested stationing elite troops there.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the custom of revenge in Taiyuan and Shangdang weakened, while Guanzhong retained its strong revenge customs. However, from the historical records, the region with the strongest revenge customs during the Eastern Han Dynasty was Yingchuan, Nanyang, and the surrounding areas. Most of the recorded revenge cases during the Eastern Han Dynasty occurred in these regions.

The more chaotic the times, the stronger the custom of revenge. Cao Zhi wrote in "Jingzheng Pian," "A brave young man avenges his father's enemy, and his name will be remembered," and in "Jieke Pian," "Young men gather to avenge their enemies in the north of Luoyang." "Jieke" means to gather guests.

Finally, let's discuss the legal definition and punishment of revenge during the Han Dynasty.

During the transition between the Qin and Han dynasties, revenge was considered just.

After the establishment of the Western Han Dynasty, revenge was illegal.

During the end of the Xin Dynasty and the establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty, revenge was out of control.

From the reign of Emperor Guangwu to the ninth year of Emperor He, about seventy years, the control over revenge was relaxed. Huan Tan once submitted a memorial to the court, strongly advocating the strict punishment of avengers, but he was ignored by Emperor Guangwu, possibly because Emperor Guangwu was influenced by the revenge ideology promoted by the Gongyang school. In the fifth year of Jianchu, Emperor Zhang established the "Qingwu Law," which explicitly provided lenient treatment for those who avenged their parents. This law remained in effect for seventeen years until the ninth year of Yongyuan.

From the ninth year of Yongyuan to the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the control over revenge was strict, and the "Qingwu Law" was abolished. Those who avenged their parents were severely punished, and officials who released avengers were also punished, such as Zhang Xin, who resigned and went into hiding. During this period, although the behavior of revenge was strictly controlled, powerful families could avoid legal punishment after killing, such as Xia Hou Dun and Yang Qiu.

Regarding the custom of revenge during the Han Dynasty, Xun Yue once made a discussion: "Someone asked about the ancient meaning of revenge. He said, 'Is it right to avenge one's enemy?' He said, 'No.' He asked, 'Then what should be done?' He said, 'There should be both leniency and strictness, both life and death, and the law should be the standard, which is called the combination of righteousness and law.'" Xun Yue believed that both legal constraints and the prevention of revenge through avoidance were necessary.

After the Han Dynasty, scholars such as Han Yu continued to explore the relationship between the law and ethics regarding revenge, but they were influenced by Xun Yue.

The above content is largely derived from "Research on the Social Customs of the Han Dynasty."

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